The Shiite school of thought differs from other Islamic schools in several ways, including the “religious authority” to whom committed Shiites turn when needed, following their opinions, rulings, and guidance. According to Shiite traditions, the concept of religious authority emerged after the disappearance of the Twelfth Imam, leading believers to consult religious scholars on matters such as issuing religious rulings, adjudication, and other religious affairs.
As a result, religious leadership became less tied to the state and more closely associated with religious seminaries (Hawzas), particularly as countries expanded and the number of followers increased. The most senior scholars are known as “Grand Ayatollahs” who have reached the level of ijtihad, or independent reasoning, and are regarded as among the most learned religious scholars. Their followers, known as “muqallids,” or those who follow them, pay khums, a religious contribution traditionally calculated as one-fifth, or approximately 20 percent, of their income or gains. Historically, these religious authorities have operated independently of ruling powers and are primarily based in Najaf and Karbala in Iraq, and Qom in Iran.
There is usually more than one religious authority at any given time, with each maintaining a network of followers and representatives. Outside the Ja‘fari Shiite school of thought, the Ibadi school, which is prevalent in Oman and parts of North Africa, has a somewhat similar system. Ibadis have their own religious authorities and institutions, but their system does not follow the same structure as the Twelver Shiite model, which is based on individual emulation of a supreme religious authority. They are also not required to pay khums as a one-fifth tax.
Among Sunni Muslims, there is no single religious authority. Instead, religious guidance is provided through institutions such as Dar al-Ifta (Houses of Fatwas) or by Grand Muftis, depending on the country and school of jurisprudence. The Hanafischool, for example, is prevalent in Turkey, the Caucasus, Uzbekistan, the Levant, Egypt, Iraq, Pakistan, India, and Afghanistan. The Maliki school is widespread throughout North Africa, Sudan, Upper Egypt, and several other African countries. The Shafi‘i school is prevalent in Egypt, Yemen, Palestine, Jordan, East Africa, Somalia, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Brunei.
The Hanbali school is prevalent in Saudi Arabia and Qatar. In many of these countries, muftis are state employees and typically receive high salaries. However, there is no single, universally accepted authority responsible for issuing religious advice or fatwas. Independent religious bodies and scholars also exist outside government institutions. Nevertheless, the Shiite religious establishment, particularly its Grand Ayatollahs, wields considerable moral authority. During the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait, a Grand Ayatollah issued a fatwa prohibiting the acquisition, sale, or purchase of stolen Kuwaiti property.
This fatwa significantly deterred many people from buying stolen goods. During the 2003 US-led invasion that toppled Saddam Hussein, Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani issued a fatwa permitting cooperation with the occupying US forces. A Shiite religious authority is not merely a mufti, but serves as a source of religious and political guidance, whose rulings may be followed by followers in matters of worship and daily life.
These rulings, however, are not necessarily binding on the followers of other religious authorities. In the past, some Grand Ayatollahs have aligned themselves with government positions when it suited their interests. Religious authorities have not always been opposed to governments, nor have they been entirely independent in their views.
By Ahmad alsarraf
email: [email protected]
email: [email protected]
