There is a common misconception, or rather a widespread misunderstanding, regarding the situation and status of Jews under Islamic rule, including during periods such as Arab rule in Andalusia, the Abbasid Caliphate, the Fatimid Caliphate, the Mamluk Sultanate, and the Ottoman Caliphate until its collapse. This misconception continued throughout the Anglo-French colonial period in the region, the establishment of Israel in 1948, and the years that followed. Generally speaking, Jews experienced their best years among Arabs and Muslims after the era of the four Rightly Guided Caliphs, and they experienced their worst years in Europe. Were it not for the intense European hostility toward them, no individual or entity would have considered establishing an independent Jewish state.
Throughout their history, Jews lived as a minority in dozens of countries, a situation that was accepted due to the significant religious, social, and political differences between them. Andalusia was a prominent example of what is referred to as the Golden Age of Jews under Islamic rule, particularly during the 10th and 11th centuries CE under the Umayyad Caliphate in Cordoba. Jews held influential positions, including roles as ministers, physicians, poets, and philosophers. Among the most notable figures were Shaprut, a physician and minister in the court of Abd al-Rahman III, and the philosopher Moses Maimonides, regarded as one of the greatest Jewish theologians in history.
This was followed by the persecution of Jews and Christians in the 12th century, and later by the Catholic conquest of Granada in 1492, which brought an end to Arab-Islamic rule in Spain. As a result, many Jews and Muslims fled or were expelled from Spain, particularly those who refused to convert, moving to North Africa, the Ottoman Empire, and other parts of Europe. These Jewish communities became known as Sephardim. Under Islamic rule, Jews generally lived as dhimmis, a protected religious minority in exchange for paying the jizya tax and adhering to certain social restrictions, including requirements such as wearing specific clothing to distinguish them from others.
Restrictions were also imposed on the construction of places of worship, among other things. This system provided Jews with a degree of protection and stability compared to their experiences in Europe during certain periods, although it did not represent complete equality. The extent and severity of these restrictions varied depending on the state, era, and ruler. During certain periods of the Ottoman Empire, Jewish communities enjoyed a level of protection and stability. In Morocco, Jewish communities were established and were relatively prosperous, despite occasional instances of discrimination and persecution. Jewish communities have existed in Yemen, Iraq, and Egypt since ancient times, thousands of years before the emergence of Islam. The situation of Jews in Christian Europe was generally harsher and more unstable. Jews were expelled from England in 1290, from France on several occasions, from Spain in 1492, and from Portugal in 1497. Beginning in the 16th century, many Jews were confined to closed ghettos and restricted from leaving after certain hours.
They also suffered greatly during the Inquisition, facing persecution and repeated massacres fueled by accusations and false claims. Following the Enlightenment and the French Revolution, a wave of emancipation began during the 18th and 19th centuries, granting Jews full citizenship rights in most of Western Europe. The situation of Jews in the Russian Empire was among the most difficult in Europe, as they were restricted to specific geographical areas. Jews faced repeated waves of mass violence, particularly between 1881 and 1884 following the assassination of Tsar Alexander II. A further significant wave of emigration took place between 1903 and 1906, leading to the migration of millions to Western Europe and the United States during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
The Holocaust, perpetrated by Nazi Germany, was the most devastating event in modern Jewish history. Following the end of World War II and the establishment of Israel in 1948, Jews from Arab countries, including Iraq, Egypt, Yemen, Morocco, Syria, and Libya, began emigrating to Israel. This migration was driven either by increasing pressures and restrictions in their home countries or by voluntary decisions to relocate, depending on the circumstances. This topic will be addressed in a future article.
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